It's a personal statement for graduate school major in education

It's a for graduate school major in education counslor - Personal Statement Example In light of this, I discovered that counseling was one of the indispensible roles in the learning journey for students. Given that I have bilingual and diverse culture background, I devote my life to assist those with similar challenges. I Lu Chen was born in China more than twenty years ago before moving to the United States at the age of 16. Being the first to join college in my family, I am among the first generation immigrants who are fluent in English and Mandarin, in both speech and writing. My long time objective is to be at the top in the field of counseling. This dream will be accomplished once I pursue a Masters of Arts degree in Education with specifications of Counseling and Student Personnel. I am always enthusiastic about working hard in order to make my dream come true. In this regard, I have to make certain that I utilize every distinct opportunity that comes my way, particularly in services that are attached to the San Jose State University. I have completed my first degree of Bachelor’s of Arts, a specialization in Child and Adolescent development in this University. My past academic life has intensively prepared me for a long time profession as a counselor. First, I have an interest in communicating, caring and solving challenges that affect the children especially those that have special needs. Moreover, my capacity to work with different people has made it possible for me to value and fulfill their diverse demands. I am in a position to assist children set up their schedule in a rational way by ensuring that they are able to have time for physical exercises after having their lessons. Likewise, I assist and participate with them in extracurricular activities such as MPM and Chess. On the other hand, through conferences held for parents, I am able to communicate with parents and express my opinions concerning their children in a respectful approach. My enthusiastic venture into

The Character of Uncle Tom Essay Example for Free

The Character of Uncle Tom Essay Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel â€Å"Uncle Tom’s Cabin† made such a momentous statement in American culture, at the time it was published, until today, in the 21st century. Some secondary schools had the book banned from their roster of books in their libraries, mainly because of its supposedly controversial nature (The strength of ,2008). The reason why the book has been the root of much controversy is that Ms. Stowe injected a lot of melodrama into her story, to the point that readers considered it a caricature of reality. Some of Ms. Stowe’s detractors contend that she did not sufficiently show the real horror of slavery, but instead, narrating the softer aspect of slavery in her novel (The strength of ,2008). Published in the early 1850’s, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was said to have contributed to the tension in America over slavery, and encouraged the abolitionist movement (The strength of ,2008). Abolitionists are those who fought for the abolition of slavery in America. Ms. Stowe was said to be a woman who was involved in religious and feminist causes (The strength of ,2008). Ms. Stowe’s influence on the American northern states was undisputed. In fact, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was said to have led to Civil War (The strength of ,2008). It is often reported that Ms. Stowe’s purpose in writing the novel was to expose the evils of slavery in the North, where many Americans were not aware of what was actually going on in the rest of their country (The strength of ,2008). The book, amazingly successful by selling 300,000 copies in its first year, inspired President Lincoln, upon meeting Ms. Stowe, to say, â€Å"So this is the little lady who made this big war (The strength of ,2008). † Uncle Tom’s Cabin 4 Despite this, many historians complain that Ms. Stowe’s novel is historically inaccurate, and that Ms. Stowe grossfully exaggerated the evils in slavery so she can drive home her point. These issues remain largely debated, except for one. The character of Uncle Tom has been detrimentally re-created a hundred times over, and in this paper, I will explore the character behind â€Å"Uncle Tom†, and why it has become what it is in today’s times. Uncle Tom has been charged with demeaning African Americans with his overly subservient behavior (The strength of ,2008). Modern times have derided Uncle Tom, and insist that his nature undermines the real struggles of black freedom through ingratiating himself with their white overseers and master. Ironically, I believe that Ms. Stowe created Uncle Tom to illustrate the brutality and cruelty of slavery during those times, and packaging Uncle Tom into a person filled with humility, dignity and ingrained with a strong, Christian faith (Page, 1996). Up until he drew his dying breath, Uncle Tom showed to be morally superior to his white masters by his ability to forgive those who had abused him to the point of death (Page, 1996). Let me introduce you to Uncle Tom. He is one of the long-suffering slaves of Arthur and Emily Shelby, and a dear friend of their very young son, George, who called him Uncle Tom. Faced with the possibility of losing their farm because of debts, the Shelby’s decide to sell Tom, and the son of Mrs. Shelby’s maid, Harry. When the maid, Eliza, finds out about this, she escapes with her son (Allen, 2008). Tom was sold and while traveling on a riverboat, she rescues a white girl, Eva, when she falls into the river. Her father, Augustine St. Clare, bought Tom from the slave trader Uncle Tom’s Cabin 5 and took him to live on their plantation in New Orleans. Meanwhile, Eliza met up with her fugitive husband, George, in an attempt to reach Canada. At that time, they were being hunted by a slave trader named Loker, whom George eventually shoots in a scuffle. Eliza convinced George to bring the wounded Loker to a Quaker settlement nearby, for medical attention (Allen, 2008). In New Orleans, St. Clare tries to prove to his cousin Ophelia that bias against blacks were wrong, and buys a young slave, Topsy, for Ophelia to educate. Eva dies of a protracted illness, and she shared a vision of heaven in her deathbed. People who heard her account changed for the better, and St. Clare vowed to free Uncle Tom. Before he can do so, St. Clare is fatally wounded in a fight. In anger, his wife sold Uncle Tom to a vicious Northern farm owner, Simon Legree (Allen, 2008). Uncle Tom endured endless tortures from Legree, specially when he refused to whip a fellow slave. Tom found refuge in his Christian faith, which he generously comforted the other slaves with. At one point, Uncle Tome refused to divulge to Legree where two fugitive slaves had run to, so Legree ordered him killed. Before he died, Uncle Tom forgave his killers, who, humbled by the experience, became Christians. Arthur Shelby’s son comes to buy Uncle Tom his freedom, but was too late. George went home to his own farm, frees all his slaves, and reminds them to remember Uncle Tom’s sacrifices and his unwavering faith in Christianity (Allen, 2008). Ms. Stowe described Uncle Tom as benevolent, kind, humble and simple (Willis, 2002). Of course, the white masters did everything to destroy a slave’s dignity and self-respect (Willis, 2002). Nevertheless, Uncle Tom kept his morality, and was transparent Uncle Tom’s Cabin 6 about yearning for freedom. This transparency and honesty is NOT the behavior of a subservient slave, who would not dare to venture his desires for freedom, even to a kind master (Willis, 2002). It is high time we re-think â€Å"Uncle Tom. † We should pay tribute to the depth of Uncle Tom’s character, rather than degrade him into an epithet. This development in latter times of deriding Uncle Tom is perhaps one of the most harmful and tragic historical developments in American culture (Allen, 2008). Despite the brutality in his life as a slave, Uncle Tom stood tall at all times. Sometimes, Uncle Tom would annoy readers because of his goodness. In fact, Uncle Tom could’ve run away from Arthur Shelby who trusted him with money. Yet, Uncle Tom never took advantage of Shelby, because of his deep-seated loyalty to his master (Willis, 2002). In the novel, Ms. Stowe does not provide a background on Uncle Tom. Therefore, one doesn’t know whether his loyalty to Shelby was something that was inculcated with him since childhood if he was born in the Shelby plantation (Willis, 2002). However, it is implied in the story that Shelby’s promise of freedom to Uncle Tom could have made Uncle Tom loyal, although Shelby never confirms when he will free Uncle Tom (Willis, 2002). Shelby even betrays Tom by selling him when he ran into debt (Willis, 2002). No matter what, Uncle Tom still continued to trust white people, and trust in God. Many readers disliked this behavior (Willis, 2002). Speaking of faith, Uncle Tom’s unwavering faith was put to the test when St. Clare sold him to Legree. Even though Uncle Tom maintained his loyalty and faithfulness to his master, he did contemplate about escaping (Willis, 2002). To note, escape for Uncel Uncle Tom’s Cabin 7 Tom was not exactly in the physical sense of escape, but in spiritual escape (Willis, 2002). On the other hand, Legree realized that Uncle Tom was a valuable slave who had capacities for large amounts of work. At the same time, Legree also recognized that he would have to break Uncle Tom’s spirit at some point, if he were to maximize Uncle Tom’s value (Willis, 2002). To recall, during their first confrontation, Legree ordered Uncle Tom to whip a slave girl. Uncle Tom refused by honestly telling Legree that his soul will not surrender to a mortal (Willis, 2002). He even egged on Legree by saying that if he died as a result of beatings, then that would just send him faster to heaven (Willis, 2002). This illustrates that Uncle Tom has been contemplating death, and ultimate escape from slavery. He was pragmatic about Legree, though, and knew with a certainty that Legree will not have second thoughts about killing him for resisting (Willis, 2002). A final confrontation yet occurs between Legree and Uncle Tom, when the former asked Uncle Tom to divulge where two runaway slave girls have gone to (Willis, 2002). Ms. Stowe reiterated that as two slaves brought Uncle Tom before Legree, Uncle Tom acknowledged the power of Legree. Yet, at the same time, he affirmed that God gave him the strength to face death, rather than be traitor to the two helpless runaways Legree was after (Willis, 2002). He sat his basket down by the row, and, looking up, said, Into thy hands I commend my spirit! Thou hast redeemed me, oh Lord God of truth (Willis, 2002)† Like Jesus Christ, Uncle Tom resigned to his faith to Legree. Legree symbolizes the Uncle Tom’s Cabin 8 â€Å"evils of slavery†, while Uncle Tom can be likened to the archangel who resisted Satan’s temptations (Willis, 2002). Through this moments, Uncle Tom’s courage, nobility and humility surfaces when he tells Legree that he is able to shed his blood for the sake of the innocent in the same way that Jesus Christ did (Willis, 2002). Legree deals Uncle Tom his death blow. When he died, he had forgiven his killers. Uncle Tom used passive resistance to the hilt until it brought him closer to his God through death. No. Uncle Tom was not an â€Å"Uncle Tom†. Uncle Tom’s was a more puritanical kind of Christianity (The strength of ,2008). Therefore, if a reader is searching for a revolutionary role-model, someone who captains his own fate in the most shaming circumstances, then he/she will not find that hero in Uncle Tom (Younge, 2004). However, one seldom finds revolutionary role models. Uncle Tom’s sense of duty despite his slavery, is depressing. When his wife urges him to escape together with Eliza, he says: Masr always found me on the spot he always will. I never have broke trust and I never will (Younge, 2004). Moreover, his unwillingness to align his principles to everyone’s own good, is frustrating. When tempted by a slave to kill Legree while the latter was drunk, Uncle Tom said: No! good never comes of wickedness. Id sooner chop my right hand off Uncle Tom’s Cabin 9 The Lord hasnt called us to wrath. We must suffer, and wait his time (Younge, 2004). Uncle Tom instilled in us his belief that he would rather wait for his true freedom in heaven, as opposed to fighting for his freedom on earth. I t is from this same well of belief is Uncle Tom able to preserve his basic humanism, despite daily exposure to degradation and deprivation of respect (Younge, 2004). It is in his stoic faith and consistency do we realize Uncle Tom’s integrity (Younge, 2004). Through his integrity, he was able to stand for himself, encourage and comfort his fellow slaves, yet at the same time, restrain himself from abhorring the whites (Younge, 2004). Hecne, to understand why this epitome of dignity, self-respect and faith has becme an epitome for subservience and betrayal, we have to look at politics, film and the theater (Younge, 2004). Stage renditions of Uncle Tom’s Cabin tookaway radical yet subtle anti-slave messages, turning the story into one, big, minstrel show (Younge, 2004). In fact, Uncle Tom was the first cinematic role played by a first lead in a black film in the year 1914 (Younge, 2004).

Universal Human Rights and Cultural Differences

Universal Human Rights and Cultural Differences Since the end of the Second World War, an increasing number of human rights instruments have been adopted, by the United Nations. These instruments have set forth common standards of human rights, and members’ states of the U.N. are called upon to respect in order to ensure better protection of human rights everywhere. But opposite to this trend, there has been a sort of resistance in many parts of the world, where human rights norms are seen as western matter. During the Cool War period, countries of the Soviet block used to consider them as linked to ‘capitalist bourgeoisie’ while young independent nations of the South saw the focus on human rights as a threat to their newly acquired sovereignty. Both sides claimed their right to difference. This raises the issue whether human rights standards should be considered differently because of cultural or differences among peoples. To put it another way, â€Å"are human rights of universal viability and applicability or are they better understood and evaluated within specific social and cultural contexts? What level of social accountability can be accommodated within the emerging global human rights regime to accord it cultural legitimacy within various societies?†1 Voices from the West have pointed out that differences among people did not permit them to meet the Western standards of human rights. It is believed that some cultures are more likely to commit human rights abuses, and for a series of reasons, there are people elsewhere to cover them or to keep silent because of their interest, thus ‘excusing the inexcusable’ which they claim being ‘part of their culture’. The aim of this paper is to sound the long debate on the relationship between universal standards human rights and cultural differences. Firstly, it recalls the foundation on which is grounded the concept of human rights, namely the human dignity, irrespective of culture, race, religion or gender. Secondly, it analyses major arguments put forward by cultural relativists, highlighting their danger, that is, the risk of having double standards of human rights. Finally, in concluding remarks, the paper considers the actual trend of recognizing human rights norms and condemning their abuses (such as female circumcision or sharia), even where people justify them by cultural specificity. I. The universal concept of human rights and the recognition of human dignity The concept of human is grounded on the idea that Man has rights simply because he is human. The universal worth and dignity of human being is founded in the writing of philosophers such as John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. For the former, â€Å"human beings are by nature free, equal and independent†2, and the protection of that freedom and equality should be the end of the political society. Rousseau also insists on the freedom of the human being and writes that Man should never surrender his freedom: â€Å"A man who renounces to his freedom renounces at his quality as human being†. After bloody revolutions, there were attempts to introduce these concepts in states constitution in England, in France, and in the United States of America. But the first recognition of the need to secure rights for human being was stated in the Charter of the United Nations, following the atrocities of the Second World War. In its Preamble, it is said that one of the purpose of the U.N . is the achievement â€Å"international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and fundamental freedom for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion†. The Universal Declaration on Human Rights is the first instrument on human rights in its preamble presented itself as â€Å"a common standard of achievement for all peoples and nations†. It went further by stating: â€Å"Recognition of the human dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world†. Subsequent instruments such as the Covenant on Civil and political Rights and the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights contained what is usually called ‘core rights’ meaning â€Å"that are indispensable for an existence in human dignity and therefore need absol ute protection†. Among those core rights are the right to life, the prohibition of torture, slavery, arbitrary arrest, discrimination or genocide. No derogation from such rights is permitted, even in time of war. The philosophical foundations of the concept of human rights are to be found in the Western Europe. As Robertson and Merrils write, â€Å"it is clear that the mainstream has its origin in the liberal democratic tradition of Western Europe, a tradition which is itself the product of the Greek philosophy, Roman law, the Judeo-Christian tradition, the humanism of the Reformation and the Age of reason†. It means that the Western World translated into international law its philosophical, moral, cultural and religious value. Questions arise therefore as to their universality that is whether it is possible to take into account the differences while focusing on the common standards of human rights. On the other hand, if cultural differences cannot be denied, it is to establish whether differences can be an excuse to human rights abuses. Who will decide the nature and the level of change to meet universal standards of human rights and how avoid to be labelled /or accused of cultural he gemony? For the relativists, moral and cultural values differ from one culture to another. According to Parekh, â€Å"Different societies throw up different systems of moral beliefs depending on such things as their history, traditions, geographical circumstances, and views of the world. We have no means of judging them for there are no objective and universal criteria available for the purpose, and even if there were, we would be too deeply conditioned by our own society to discover them†. Cultural differences may have an influence on the human rights issues where national competence, the sovereignty of the state or the quest of self-determination are opposed to the idea of universal human rights standards. The 1993 Vienna Conference was an example of arena where, universal principle of human rights clashed with relativistic assumptions. At the eve of that important even, African and Asian groups of nations mate to draw their views they intended to put forward at the conference. In the Tunis Declaration, which reflected both their convictions and their expectations, the African group nations gave a different sound. While admitting that the universality of human rights, they declared that â€Å" no ready-made model can be prescribed at the universal level since the historical and cultural realities of each nation and the traditions, standards and values of each people cannot be disregarded†. They also highlighted the â€Å"principle of the indivisibility of huma n rights†: â€Å" Civil and political rights cannot be dissociated from economic, social and cultural rights. None of these rights takes precedence over the others†. Finally, the Tunis Declaration insisted on the link between human rights and economic development: â€Å"Political freedom when not accompanied by respect for economic, social and cultural rights is precarious. The right to development is inalienable. Human rights, development and international peace are interdependent (†¦) Africa, which has chosen the path of democracy, economic reform and the promotion of human rights, in an unfavourable international economic environment, and which finds itself particularly exposed to internal tensions deriving from the failure to meet the basic needs of populations and from the rise of extremism, will nevertheless remain committed to its choices and its responsibilities, and calls upon the international community to do likewise, in particular through an intensific ation of international solidarity, an adequate increase in development assistance and an appropriate settlement of the debt problem†. In the Bangkok Declaration, Asian group of nations opposed what they saw as Western imperialism and urged the international community to take into account their cultural difference as regard to human rights. While agreeing like Africans that human rights are universal in nature, they insisted that those rights â€Å"must be considered in the context of a dynamic and evolving process of international norm-setting, bearing in mind the significance of national and regional particularities and various historical, cultural and religious backgrounds†. Furthermore, they added, â€Å"the promotion of human rights should be encouraged by cooperation and consensus, and not through confrontation and the imposition of incompatible values†. Finally, criticising â€Å"the use of human rights as conditionality for extending development assistance and as an instrument of political pressure†, the Bangkok Declaration stressed â€Å" the need to avoid the application of double sta ndards in the implementation of human rights and its politicisation†. Indonesian Foreign Minister stated later in Vienna: â€Å"While human rights are universal in character, it is now generally acknowledged that their expression and implementation in the national context should remain the competence and responsibility of each government. This means that the complex variety of problems of different economic social and cultural realities and the unique value systems prevailing in each country should be taken into consideration†12. One may draw the conclusion that for Southern countries, priority has to be given to the satisfaction of basic needs for food, shelter, clothes before other rights such as freedom of expression and fair elections. One may even go so far to consider Western concepts of human rights as luxury for poor countries, because â€Å"cultural

Machiavelli?s View Of Human Nature Essay example -- essays research pa

Machiavelli’s view of human nature. Machiavelli has long been required reading for everyone intrested in politics and power. In The Prince Niccolo M achiavelli presents a unique view on governing a state. Machiavelli believes the ruling Prince should be the only authority that should determine every aspect of the state and put in effect a policy which would serve his best interests. These interests were gaining, maintaining, and expanding his political power. (Machiavelli,5). His understanding of human nature was a complete contradiction of what everyone believed and taught. Machiavelli strongly promoted a physical society and felt morality was not necessary but in fact stood in the way of an effectively governed principality. (Machiavelli,5). Although in some cases Machiavelli's suggestions seem harsh and immoral one must remember that these views were derived from his concern for the welfare of his country. At Machiavelli's time everyone believed that an individual had much to offer to the well being of the state, Machiavelli was quick to mock human nature. He truly believed that humans are not ready to serve their country unless there is a special benefit to them as individuals. Machiavelli further goes on to question the loyalty of the citizens and advises the Prince that men never keep their word to you so you should never keep youre word to them. (Machiavelli,6). However, Machiavelli did not feel that a Prince should mistreat the citizens. This suggestion is only to serve the Prince's best interests. If a prince can not be both feared and loved, Machiavelli suggests, it would be better for him to be feared by the citizens within his own principality. He makes the generalization that men are, "ungrateful, fickle, liars, and deceivers they shun danger and greedy for profit†.(Machiavelli, 54). He characterizes men as being self centered and not willing to act in the best interest of the state. When the ruler is in danger they turn against him. Machiavelli reinforces the prince's need to be feared by stating: â€Å" Men worry less about doing an injusry to one who makes himself loved than to one who makes himself feard. For love is secured by a bond of gratitude which men, wretched creatures that they are, break when it is to their advantage to do so; but fear is strengthened by a dread of punishement which is always effective.†... ...w Italy beseeches God to send someone to save her from those barbarous cruelties and outrages; see how eager and willing the country is to follow a banner, if someone will raise it.18 Although Italy had become the center of intellectual, artistic and cultural development, Machiavelli did not feel these qualities would help in securing Italy's political future. His opinion was that Italy required a leader who could have complete control over Italy's citizens and institutions. One way of maintaining control of was to institute a secular form of government. This would allow the prince to govern without being morally bound. Machiavelli's view of human nature was not in accord to that of humanists who felt that an individual could greatly contribute to the well being of the society. Machiavelli, however felt that people generally tended to work for their own best interests and gave little obligation to the well being of the state. Although Machiavelli doubted that this form of government could ever be established it did appear several years after he wrote The Prince. Machiavelli has become to be regarded as "the founder of modern day, secular politics."

“A Noiseless Patient Spider”

In Whitman’s â€Å"A Noiseless Patient Spider,† the speaker uses imagery to describe how he is studying a spider explore and work hard to fill an empty space by â€Å"Launch’d forth filament out of itself, ever unreeling them, ever tirelessly speeding them† (lines 4-5) in the first stanza. In the second stanza Whitman compares how a human can also be in an empty space like the spider like the spider trying to explore and connect to something either spiritually or personally. Another outlook using a Historical perspective you can see how Whitman compares the spider to the American people during his time and the separation between two different sides.In the first stanza the speaker is observing the spider almost scrutinizing the spider. Whitman uses very descriptive words like â€Å"isolated† (line 2) and â€Å"vacant vast† (Line 3) to show how tiny and small the spider is on the promontory compared to the massive universe making it so small th at it is noiseless. Even though the spider is surrounded by immense empty space it still is a â€Å"patient spider† (line 1) exploring and filling the empty promontory with its web. Even though there is only space around the spider it still tirelessly tries to make a connection to something by shooting out that web.When Whitman says the spider â€Å"launch’d forth filament, filament, filament, out of itself† (line 4) it shows the spider is patient because you get the image of the spider repeatedly shooting out filament trying to fill the vast space of the promontory. The lesson to learn from this spider is to keep patiently moving forward and explore your life no matter how vast or insurmountable the task maybe. In the second stanza the speaker makes a connection with the spider and relates the spider to himself â€Å"and you O my soul where you stand, Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space† (lines 6-7).The speaker feels like the spider in t he fact that his soul is detached from the world around him and he is searching for something to connect to. When Whitman writes â€Å"seeking the spheres to connect them† (line 8) he uses the word spheres which could symbolize either people or a higher power like god, which means the speaker is trying to make a religious connection or a social one with other people. If the speaker is trying to connect to other people the filament or web would symbolize modern day cell phones or the internet hich we use every day to make connections with our friends or family so we don’t feel isolated, but during the time this poem was written it could symbolize bridges and ships that were built to connect separated countries. After looking at it with a biological and historical prospective different idea came to mind.Learning how Whitman lived through the civil war, the soul in the poem that is â€Å"Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the spheres to connect them† could symbolize the division and disagreement of the American people during the civil war. Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul. † describes how Whitman was waiting for the day that America to come together as a nation of one instead of a nation divided. Going back to how the spider used single filaments to create a web that was one. I chose this poem because I liked the idea of putting single pieces together to create something in harmony that was complete.WORKS CITED DiYanni, Robert. Literature . Sixth Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2007. Print. â€Å"Walt Whitman . † Encyclopedia of World Biography. N. p. , Tuesday, September 21, 2010. Web. 21 Sep 2010. .

Environmental tobacco smoke determination in air Essays

Environmental tobacco smoke determination in air Essays Environmental tobacco smoke determination in air Essay Environmental tobacco smoke determination in air Essay Abstraction In this reappraisal, methodological attacks normally employed for the finding of chemical constituents in environmental baccy fume ( ETS ) are discussed. Sing its compositional diverseness and important wellness impact on world, the importance of ETS analysis is described along with the methodological analysiss normally available for fume coevals processes, trying, and preconcentration of ETS constituents. The public presentation of each experimental attack is besides evaluated in footings of basic quality confidence. To this terminal, the accent has been given to the gas chromatography ( GC ) -based sensing methods by comparing the absolute detectability every bit good as their analytical feasibleness for the most common ETS markers in practical sense. At the terminal, the restrictions and future chances in the survey of ETS are highlighted. Cardinal words: coffin nail ; fume ; vapor stage ; gas chromatography ; analytical public presentation ; trying ; preconcentration ; inspiration behaviour ; smoke machine 1. Introduction Environmental Tobacco Smoke ( ETS ) has been defined as the mixture of fume from the firing terminal of a coffin nail, pipe ( or cigar ) , and smoke exhaled by the tobacco user [ 1 ] . Consequently, the term ETS can be classified into: ( 1 ) Sidestream fume ( SS ) emitted between the whiffs of a combustion coffin nail, pipe, or cigar and ( 2 ) Mainstream fume ( MS ) exhaled by the tobacco user. About one-half of the ETS is generated in the signifier of SS during the burning of baccy merchandises and coffin nail smoke [ 2 ] . The constituents of SS fundamentally contain the same carcinogenic and toxic substances as MS that can be released and inhaled straight by the tobacco user at higher dosage. About, 4800 baccy chemicals have been identified as fume constituents [ 3 ] , while around 400 of those constituents have been capable to quantitative analysis [ 4 ] . Furthermore, at least 200 are toxic to worlds and/or experimental animate beings ; over 80 of them may belong to cognize or l ikely human carcinogens [ 4 ] . Some of these compounds are tar, C monoxide, H nitrile, phenols, ammonium hydroxide, methanal, benzine, nitrosamine, and nicotine. The exposure of ETS to non-smokers is besides referred to as inactive smoke. If exposed to ETS, nonsmokers absorb nicotine and other compounds merely as tobacco users do ; the greater the exposure to ETS, the greater the transportation of these harmful compounds proceed in the organic structure. It is estimated that tobacco users are more likely to develop lung malignant neoplastic disease by 15 times, to develop chronic lung disease by 11 times, and to endure from acute myocardial infarctions twice than non-smokers [ 5 ] . Most ETS surveies have been concentrating on the measuring of toxic pollutant degrees or on the appraisal of their exposure degree and the associated hazard with the assistance of diverse methodological attacks such as finding of ETS constituents ( MS plus SS ) , theoretical mold ( between MS and SS ) , designation of biomarkers, and personal monitoring [ 6 ] . By and large, when a individual lights a coffin nail to get down smoke, dilution of both SS and ( exhaled ) MS proceed in the ambiance with their diffusion. These fumes and their constituents are capable to farther alterations in both physical and chemical senses ( including reactions with chemical substances non generated by ETS ) . The quantitative appraisal of the concentration degrees of all harmful substances released via ETS should be considered the first measure toward the proper protection against ETS. The output and composing of a given ETS are sensitively reflected by a figure of variables such as sum of baccy burnt, the physical dimensions of coffin nail ( length, diameter, baccy blend, paper type, and filter type ) , and the types and measures of seasoning agents and additives [ 7 ] . It is besides notable that most ETS researches carried out antecedently have relied on the usage of controlled conditions and/or certain mention ( or research ) cigarettes. In contrast, the existent exposure status of ETS frequently varies in footings of smoking status ( e.g. , whiffing behaviour of an person ) and the alterations made after the emanation of fume into the ambiance ( e.g. , reaction with other chemical species ) . Furthermore, such status can besides be affected by certain variables like the length of the clip slowdown between the fume coevals and exposure ( i.e. , aged and un-aged fume ) . Most methods used for the ETS analysis have been developed based on gas chromatography ( GC ) techniques which still remain to be the best pick. The usage of GC-flame ionisation sensing ( FID ) system was the common pick for the analysis of aromatic VOCs and TVOCs in ETS [ 8-10 ] . Many writers besides relied on the N selective sensors ( such as N phosphoric sensor ( NPD ) ) for the marks including nicotine or N related compounds [ 9, 11-13 ] . Furthermore, mass spectrometer ( MS ) has been employed progressively for the sensing of selective markers ( such as nicotine, 3-ethyl pyridine ( 3-EP ) , and 2-5 dihydrofuran ) and a broad scope of volatile substances with the assistance of diverse sample intervention ( or reassign ) attacks [ 14-21 ] . Although most of old surveies were able to supply a wealth of general information sing fume composing, they have besides been confronted by different types of restrictions ( e.g. , conditions of the smoke machine, sample readying stairss, and instrumental conditions applied in the survey ) . Researchs are still underway to make full the blank pertaining to the ETS finding. The present reappraisal critically evaluates the up-to-dated cognition on the ETS with the particular accent on the finding of selective markers of ETS in air ( Table 1 ) . 2. Determination of ETS constituents 3.1 Smoke coevals and its testing There are two types of proving attacks that are typically applied to look into mainstream coffin nail fume, i.e. , output and composing measurings. Smoke output measurings fundamentally include the finding of pitch, nicotine, and C monoxide by concentrating on comparative sum of fume produced from a coffin nail under specific smoke conditions. For the probe of the ETS composing, two types of experimental attacks may be considered: ( 1 ) covering as many ETS constituents as possible or ( 2 ) focussing on the selected fume components ( e.g. , components with the possible wellness hazards ) . In order to meaningfully measure fume outputs of coffin nails, trials are conducted under unvarying and well-characterized fume coevals ( and analytical ) conditions. In this regard, there have been a figure of attempts since 1960s to set up national and international criterion methods of proving. Many types of smoking methods have been introduced by US Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) , International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) , Cooperation Centre for Scientific Research Relative to Tobacco ( CORESTA ) , and Tobacco Institute of Japan ( TIOJ ) [ 22-24 ] . The most common fume coevals methods aided by fume machine system include FTC and ISO 4387, which have the same standards in footings of whiff volume ( 35 cm3 ) , puff co evals frequence ( at every 60 s ) , and puff continuance ( 2 s ) . Here, coffin nails are to be smoked up to a prescribed concluding butt length without alteration of manufactured merchandises ( e.g. , no knowing blocking of perforation as is present in the coffin nail filter ) . As the sequence of these developments, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the province of Texas introduced new coffin nail testing demands in the late 1990s, [ 25-26 ] to accurately or realistically predict nicotine consumption for mean consumers. In that protocol, coffin nails are smoked with larger whiff volumes ( 45 cm3 ) than with the FTC method. Furthermore, whiffs are taken more often ( at every 30 s ) with its filter airing partly blocked ( 50 % ) . To obtain the practical information reflecting the emanations exposed to the consumer, the Canadian federal authorities has farther modified coffin nail output proving by maximising the fume roll uping conditions of the machine [ 27 ] . This method required a 55 cm3 whiff volume, whiffs coevals interval of every 30 s, and complete blocking of coffin nail filter airing [ 28 ] . The 50 or 100 % filter blowhole blocking is likely to overrate fume outputs for most tobacco users under the existent smoke conditions. This is because ab out all pitch and nicotine can be captured and analyzed under such modified conditions. In contrast, under the existent conditions, single fume components are retained more variably in relation to the single topic s inspiration, halitus form or absorption factor of single component. A recent survey demonstrated that 60-70 % of the nicotine output under the ad libitum smoke conditions was retained by tobacco users [ 29-30 ] . Sing the broad assortment of whiffing and inspiration behaviours and forms in a smoke population, it is yet unrealistic to practically imitate the human smoke status that would efficaciously reflect all the variablenesss in fume consumption forms for all fume components present, when exhaled or inhaled, because of complexness in fume composings. As discussed above, machine generated smoke outputs may supply an indicant of maximal possible fume exposure. 3.2. Smoke composing and choice of mark analytes ( markers of ETS ) In the survey of ETS, finding of the chemical composing is of premier importance. A general lineation of ETS analysis is presented in Fig 1 as flow diagram. In an attempt to cut down the complexness in the analysis of coffin nail fume, many efforts have been made to divide and place the components of ETS. If the history of ETS finding is retrospected, the first study day of the months back to Schumacher et Al. [ 31 ] in which up to 387 fume constituents ( i.e. , 19 acids, 61 lactones, 32 esters, 41 amides, 21 imides, 45 aldehydes and ketones, 46 intoxicants, 30 pyridine derived functions, 25 iminazoles, 31 lactams, 23 assorted nitgobeous heterocyclic compounds ) were identified from water-soluble part of mainstream fume. In continuance of this attempt, Newell et Al. [ 32 ] isolated and identified 173 new fume constituents ( including acids ) nowadays in the ether-soluble part of coffin nail fume condensate. 268 new fume constituents ( lipotropic bases ) were farther identified [ 33 ] . Schmeltz and Hoffmann [ 34 ] reviewed nitrogen-containing compounds in baccy and baccy fume. Thereafter, Rodgman [ 35 ] conducted a comprehensive reappraisal on the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) released from coffin nail fume. Comprehensive planar gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectroscopy ( GCxGC-TOF-MS ) has been employed late for the analysis of coffin nail fume to ensue in a extremum tabular array incorporating some 30,000 extremums [ 36 ] . Complex hydrocarbons were characterized by GC-MS and GCxGC-TOF-MS in coffin nail fume condensate [ 37 ] . As a consequence, a sum of 1800 hydrocarbons were tentatively identified, including aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatics and isoprenoid hydrocarbons. Although there have been a figure of attempts to measure the maximal constituents of ETS, most ETS analyses normally focused on a comparatively little figure of analytes ( selective markers ) with the assistance of specific sample readying techniques. In fact, selective sensing of mark compounds helped us transport out in-depth analysis of environmentally important constituents and raised the quality of ETS research [ 36 ] . A marker for ETS survey was proposed to refer the undermentioned 4 belongingss: ( 1 ) unique ( or about alone ) in baccy fume, ( 2 ) sufficient for sensing through the common available techniques, ( 3 ) similar rates of emanation for most coffin nail trade names, and ( 4 ) a changeless ratio in ETS ( in footings of the comparative composing compared to the staying constituents for a broad scope of coffin nail trade names ) [ 38 ] . Some of the markers studied are respirable suspended peculiar affair ( RSP ) , ultraviolet particulate affair ( UVPM ) , fluorescent particulate affair ( FPM ) , soluble particulate affair ( SolPM ) , nicotine, 3-EP, and 2-5 dimethyl furan [ 19-20, 39 ] . Out of all studied ETS markers, nicotine has been explored most often, as it is non normally found in a smokeless indoor air. However, the suitableness of nicotine as a baccy marker has besides been questioned because of its sink consequence ( e.g. , decay or lessening by UV-radiation ) . 3.3 Sampling/preconcentration methods of vapor stage markers of ETS 3.3.1. Collection on solid sorbents In visible radiation of compositional diverseness in ETS, surveies conducted to day of the month hold focused on some selective markers of which analysis can continue with the proper choice of suited trying media. In Table 2, the sampling/preconcentration strategies normally applied for the aggregation of ETS samples are summarized. As these selective markers normally exist at ultra-low concentration degree, e.g. , nicotine every bit low as 1.8  µg m-3 [ 40 ] , one needs some preconcentration/enrichment method to concentrate their concentration in the noticeable scope of common methods ( GC or GC-MS ) . For this intent, solid sorbents have been applied often as preconcentration tools to ease their quantification. The aggregation on these solid sorbents can farther be classified into two major classs based on the sample intervention attack prior to GC-based analysis: ( 1 ) sorbent that require extraction of the ETS constituents with suited dissolver ( solvent-based ) and ( 2 ) the s orbent that are thermally desorbed in a thermic desorber ( TD ) system without any extraction process ( i.e. , solvent-free method ) 3.3.1.1 Solvent- based extraction Bing recommended as a standard method for the aggregation and analysis of nicotine and other N incorporating compounds in air [ 41 ] , XAD-4 has been preferred over the other aggregation media in both research lab and field conditions which needs solvent-based extraction by ethyl ethanoate with triethyl aminoalkane buffer prior to GC-based analysis. For case, Nelson et Al. [ 9 ] were able to roll up nicotine from ETS samples generated by research coffin nails utilizing XAD-4 rosin and quantified nicotine at a concentration scope of 72 to 106  µg m-3 by GC-NPD. Baek et Al. [ 8 ] besides used XAD-4 rosin to mensurate nicotine in the scope of 0.3 ( outdoor ) to 1.8  µg m-3 ( indoor ) from assorted urban locations in Korea. Likewise, Phillips et Al. [ 12 ] successfully detected nicotine at a low concentration degree of 0.60-0.90  µg m-3 from the workplace environments in U.K with the assistance of XAD-4 rosin. The storage of gaseous nicotine on XAD-4 rosin was stable for 30 yearss at 5 A ; deg ; C and for 14 yearss at ambient temperature [ 10 ] . The desorption efficiency for nicotine determined by these writers over the scope of survey varied from 90.9 % ( 0.096  µg ) to 93.7 % ( 24.0  µg ) . This sorbent has been used extensively to roll up environmental samples from Pubs and bars in UK wherein nicotine was present in the average scope of 57.3 to 109.4  µg m-3 [ 39 ] . Baek and Jenkins [ 13 ] successfully extended their attempts to roll up the nicotine from environmental trial Chamberss ( fume generated by fume machine ) and later analyzed it by GC-NPD. Hengel et Al. [ 17 ] have besides analyzed nicotine by roll uping it on XAD-4 rosin and sensing through GC-MS at a concentration scope of up to 100  µg m-3. A combined application of GC-FID ( or GC/NPD ) with XAD-4 sorbent tubing therefore has been widely applied for the aggregation, separation, designation, and quantitation of airborne nicotine. In recent old ages, many different types of attacks have besides been attested as the solvent-based method for the aggregation of nicotine. For case, Barnoya et Al. [ 42 ] used a inactive sampling attack to roll up nicotine on filter badge treated with Na bisulfate in the indoor environment ( school, university, airdrome, eating house, and saloon ) with an first-class detectabilty ( DL value of 0.0014  µg m-3 ) . In another study made by Saito and Seto [ 18 ] , alkaline-coated soild stage cartridge ( styrene-divinylbenzene ) was besides used to roll up nicotine from ETS with the recovery of 80 % . These writers achieved its method sensing bound ( MDL ) at 0.35  µg m-3 in a GC-MS based analysis with sampling volume of 72 litre for an air trying clip of 12 hr. Vainiotalo et Al. [ 21 ] used wood coal tubings ( SKC-226-01 ) for roll uping nicotine and 3-EP for farther extraction with pyridine/toluene solution ; they were able to observe nicotine and 3-EP with LOQ values of 0.02 and 0 .07-0.14  µg m-3, severally. The concentrations of nicotine and 3-EP in both smoke and non-smoking countries were found at 0.12 to 103  µg m-3 and 0.17 to 5  µg m-3, severally. 3.3.1.2. Solvent-free technique ( Thermal-desorber ) Contrary to the solvent-based extraction, there have been a figure of applications in which sorbents are used for the aggregation of ETS without the assistance of dissolver. In this regard, the debut of machine-controlled TD technique with the combination of Tenax sorbent has been successful for the analysis of nicotine and other mark compounds. For case, Thompson et Al. [ 11 ] quantified nicotine in the concentration scope of 0.5 to 37.2  µg m-3 through the aggregation by Tenax GC ( 35-60 ) and analysis by GC-NPD. Rothberg et Al. [ 38 ] were able to roll up nicotine on Tenax TA and quantified with a bound of quantification ( LOQ ) around 0.05  µg m-3 with a combination of GC-MS and TD. In a survey of Vainiotalo et Al. [ 21 ] , a suite of VOCs ( methylbenzene, m, p-xylene, limonene, benzine, furfurylaldehyde, phenol, ethylbenzene, pyridine, o-xylene, 3-picoline, cinnamene, and naphthalene ) were capable to adsorbent enrichment by Tenax TA ( 60/80 ) and chrompack ( 150 mg/tube ) . These writers collected samples from indoor environment of eating houses ( smoking and non-smoking countries ) and analyzed them with the assistance of GC-MS and TD combination ; they were able to accomplish LOQ in the scope of 0.004 to 0.16  µg m-3. Recently, Tenax GR has besides been used efficaciously in combination with Carbosieve to roll up a broad scope of ETS constituents ( nicotine, 3-EP, 2, 5-dimethyl furan, aromatics, methane seriess, olefines, terpenes, phenols, and carbonyls ) from research coffin nails for the application of GC-MS and TD system [ 20 ] ; these writers were able to accomplish DL values at sub-nanogram degree. There have been a few research attempts which attempted to quantify VOCs and other analytes in ETS that are non normally treated as ETS markers. For case, multi-sorbent traps ( Carbotrap + Carbosieve + Carbopack-X ) were used for the sorption of 30 VOCs [ 13 ] . Carbopack-X tubings were besides used to mensurate 1, 3 butadiene and isoprene from ET S with LOQ values below 0.05  µg m-3 by a GC-MS-TD based analysis [ 21 ] . As another type of sorbent-based application, graphitized C black placed in quartz tubing was used for the aggregation of nicotine from environmental chamber [ 43 ] . Microwave thermic desorption-capillary GC was so employed for its finding ( in both gas and paticulate stage ) in SS samples from that chamber. These writers pointed that several factors such as temperature stableness, high pureness, heat soaking up features of the sorbent, and the permeableness of the vitreous silica tubes to microwaves played cardinal functions in the thermic desorption with the assistance of microwaves after active sampling. Baltussen et Al. [ 44 ] utilized a cartridge packed with 100 % polydimethylsiloxane ( PDMS ) particles for the sorptive enrichment of nicotine from gaseous samples and quantification with a combination of a TD and GC-NPD. These writers evaluated the sorption efficiency of four sorbent stuffs ( Carbotrap 300, Carbotrap 302, Tenax TA, and Chromosorb 101 ) against PDMS by spiking the air samples with nicotine at two concentrations, i.e. , 100 and 2  µg m-3 and ciphering the recoveries for 6 L of air samples. The consequences showed a complete loss of nicotine on C based Carbotrap stages, whereas others showed significantly hapless recoveries compared to PDMS. For case, Tenax TA showed a recovery in the scope of 52 % ( at 2 at 100  µg m-3 ) to 73 % ( at 100  µg m-3 ) , while Chromosorb 101 showed a recovery in the scope of 7 % ( at 2 at 100  µg m-3 ) to 61 % ( at 100  µg m-3 ) . Conversely, PDMS demonstrated reasonably good recoveries of 98 and 105 % at 100 and 2  µg m-3 conc entrations, severally. In drumhead, if the aforesaid surveies are compared with each other, there exist a figure of picks for solid sorbents for sampling of ETS. However, there is deficiency of sufficient informations refering to the basic standards such as discovery volume, desorption efficiency, and storage ability to decently measure the effectivity of sorbent methods, if one wants to cover with the high terminal of burning beginning like ETS in footings of the dependability or duplicability. For this ground, we need to foster develop trying methodological analysiss and to measure the aforesaid standards of normally available sorbents with regard to ETS. In recent old ages, Peltier chilling ( Personal computer ) -based cryogenic preconcentration has often been employed in concurrence with TD for the analysis of environmental samples [ 45 ] . Because the PC-TD-based method has barely been applied to ETS, it should be worthwhile to research the feasibleness of such technique for ETS research in assorted r espects. 3.3.2. Solid stage microextraction ( SPME ) In recent old ages, the solid-phase microextraction ( SPME ) method has received attending as a possible sample readying technique for hint gas constituents under solvent-free conditions. The convenience of SPME has been realized both in the research lab and for on-site monitoring, as it allows a individual measure intervention for trying, isolation, and enrichment [ 46 ] . For air matrices, the SPME fibre can be used to pull out analytes either by direct exposure to raw samples or by usage of the headspace method on pretreated samples [ 47-48 ] . Due to aforementioned belongingss, SPME has been widely applied to the sampling and analysis of environmental, nutrient, olfactory property, forensic, and pharmaceutical samples [ 49 ] . In the field of baccy research, the utility of SPME has been recognized in the analysis of assorted coffin nail additives [ 50-51 ] , phenolic compounds in coffin nail fume condensate [ 52 ] , volatile constituents in baccy [ 53 ] , assorted alkaloids nowadays in baccy [ 54 ] , free-base nicotine associated with the particulate fraction of MS [ 55 ] , and ethanoates in coffin nail baccy [ 56 ] . As listed above, there exist a figure of studies that employed SPME for the analysis of baccy constituents instead than ETS. As such, the application of SPME has barely been made towards the finding of gaseous ETS constituents. As one specific illustration, Huali et Al. [ 15 ] evaluated two types of trying methods for gaseous nicotine on 100  µm PDMS fibre. The first 1 was a low volume active sampling method for nicotine, while the 2nd one entirely relied on molecular diffusion with inactive sampling. Both methods were able to pull out nicotine at low concentration degrees of 0.12 to 0.22  µg m-3. In a recent study, Pieraccini et Al. [ 21 ] attempted to develop SPME-based quantification method for fume components. These writers evaluated 3 type of fibres, i.e. , 100  µm PDMS, 85  µm polyacrylate ( PA ) , and 65  µm polydimethylsiloxane/ divinylbenzene ( PDMS/DVB ) ) . The optimisation of the extraction process was attained by taking into consideration of fiber polymer type and exposure temperature and continuance. These writers highlighted that a reasonably polar fibre ( PDMS/DVB ) was the most efficient for trying fume components with a medium temperature ( 40oC ) and a low extraction clip ( 1 min ) which finally led to the successful sensing and quantification of 67 fume constituents ( nicotine with VOCs ) . In continuance of this attempt, Ye et Al. [ 57 ] reported that SPME can be appropriately used for trying and analysis of VOCs from baccy fume. These writers besides investigated the optimal conditions for SPME application ( fiber type, exposure continuance, desorption temperature, etc. ) and found 30  µm divinylbenzene-carboxen-polydimethylsiloxane ( DVB-CAR-PDMS ) as the best pick ( among four different polymer coatings, i.e. , 65 µm PDMS-DVB, 65  µm carbowax-divinylbenzene ( CW-DVB ) , 30  µm DVB-CAR-PDMS, 85  µm polyacrylate ( PA ) ) with exposure continuance of 3 min and a desorption temperature of 250oC. These writers were able to quantify 70 VOCs from mainstream fume collected by a home-made smoke machine and analysis through a combination of SPME and GC-MS. It is good known that the analysis with SPME method can be sensitively affected by diverse equilibrium commanding factors, i.e. , initial concentration of analyte, stage types, fiber surfacing volume, distribution coefficient, their liposolubilty ( octanol-water divider coefficient or log Kow ) , and molecular volume [ 58-59 ] . Because SPME can endure from a job of the fibre impregnation in ETS analysis, it can finally give erroneous consequences for the constituents with really high concentration ( e.g. , nicotine ) [ 21 ] . Hence, a proper rating of SPME technique is further desirable for the analysis of complex mixture like ETS in footings of fibre type choices and suited sampling conditions. The optimisation of SPME conditions has the possible to drive ETS research to new skyline, sing its broad scope of pertinence, low cost, and easiness of operation. 3.4. Sampling of particulate stage ETS markers As a important measure of ETS constituents can be accumulated into atom stage, many research workers have besides studied ETS markers in particulate stage such as RSP, UVPM, FPM, and SolPM along with their gaseous opposite numbers. For the aggregation of these particulate stage markers, fluoropore membrane filter has been utilized extensively [ 8-9, 12-13, 39 ] . The aggregation process for such constituents by and large consists of go throughing big volume of air through an impactor and the filter by agencies of a vacuity pump. The finding of RSP is accomplished by merely ciphering the mass difference of the sampled and pre-weighted filter. On the other manus, finding of UVPM, FPM, and SolPM can continue with extraction of those filters with dissolver ( e.g. , methyl alcohol ) to measure each fraction with a combination of different sensors ( e.g. , UV for UVPM and Fluorescence sensors for FPM ) or columns through high public presentation liquid chromatography ( e.g. , usage of the modified column for SolPM ) . The usage of these filters has been successful both in research lab and field conditions. For case, Nelson et Al. [ 9 ] were able to mensurate the concentrations of RSP, UVPM, and FPM in the concentration ranges of 1285-1661, 156-205, and 30-38  µg m-3, severally, from the fume of 11 different coffin nail trade names collected in laboratory conditions. In another study made by Baek et Al. [ 8 ] , these particulate stage constituents ( i.e. , RSP, UVPM, FPM, and SolPM ) were collected on fluoropore membrane filter and determined in the concentration ranges of 80-100, 9.5-19.5, 4.2-9.3, and 1.5-7.0  µg m-3, severally. These writers used a significantly big volume of air ( i.e. , 2477 L ) to accomplish LOQ values of 25 ( RSP ) , 0.50 ( UVPM ) , 0.11 ( FPM ) , and 0.25  µg m-3 ( SolPM ) . 4. Evaluation of sensing methods for ETS constituents 4.1. GC-based sensing for vapor stage constituents The finding of ETS has been achieved most normally through GC interfaced with one of several selectable sensing systems such as GC-FID for the analysis of aromatic VOCs and TVOCs [ 9-10 ] , nitrogen selective sensors ( such as NPD ) for the nicotine or N related compounds [ 9,11-13 ] , and MS for both selective markers ( such as nicotine, 3-EP, and 2-5 dihydrofuran ) and a broad scope of volatile substances [ 14-21 ] ( Table 3 ) . In order to compare the comparative public presentation of different sensing methods, the basic quality confidence parametric quantities such as sensing bound ( DL ) values and preciseness ( expressed in footings of comparative criterion divergence ( RSD ) from replicate analysis ) achieved in old surveies have been compiled in Table 4. The DL values of different surveies are summarized for single ETS constituents, as it can change between compounds against different methods. The DL values are expressed both in footings of absolute detectabilty ( ng ) and concentration (  µg m-3 ) . However, it was non possible to show all the DL values in both footings due to the deficiency of sampling/analysis information. As shown in Table 4, the DL values for a given ETS constituent were found in a variable scope depending on the experimental attacks. Comparison of the DL values in footings of absolute mass ( ng ) indicates that MS has a relatively superior public presentation than the other methods like N selective sensors ( e.g. , NPD ) . For case, Charles et Al. [ 19 ] were able to accomplish the DL values of the nicotine by the MS method at two orders of the magnitude lower ( 0.16-1.09 nanogram ) than those of NPD ( 13.0 nanogram ) reported by Pendergrass et Al. [ 10 ] ; note that both surveies used thermic desorption as a sample transportation method. Likewise, if the DL values of nicotine are derived based on dissolver based extraction method ( i.e. , acetone/ethyl acetate/methanol based extraction ) , MS and NPD have significantly big differences: the former ( 0.005 nanogram: [ 17 ] ) showed DL values relatively superior to the later ( 100 nanogram: [ 12 ] ) ( Table 4 ) . The absolute detectab ilty of FID was besides significantly larger than those of MS [ 61 ] ; the absolute DL of nicotine was about 100 nanograms, when collected on Cambridge filter phonograph record, extracted with quintessence and Na hydrated oxide, and analyzed with a megabore capillary GC-FID. The look of DL values in footings of concentration (  µg m-3 ) offers a comparing for detectability in a practical sense. In contrast to those expressed in absolute footings, DL values in  µg m-3 fell in slightly comparable scope between MS and NPD in many surveies. For case, if the detectabilty of two surveies, i.e. , NPD [ 12 ] vs. MS [ 17 ] is compared for nicotine, they were seen in a reasonably comparable scope ( below 0.09  µg m-3 degree ) . The compensation attained by NPD was due to the aggregation of of big sample volume ( 1152 L ) relative to MS ( 15- 120 L ) ( Table 4 ) . As another nitrogen-bearing marker for ETS, 3-EP has besides been targeted in assorted surveies. Its DL values varied between 0.16 [ 19 ] to 10 nanograms [ 60 ] , when compared in absolute footings across different surveies made with GC-MS combined with TD. In add-on, legion surveies have shown the existent sensing of 3-EP at sub- µg m-3 degree in existent samples ( below 0.27  µg m-3 ) either with NPD or MS-based sensing [ 12, 21, 39 ] . In drumhead, if one compares straight the detectabilty of MS and NPD in the analysis of nitrogen-bearing ETS markers, the former is well superior in absolute footings which can be improved further in practical sense with the aggregation of big sampling volume and by the employment of preconcentration tools like SPME. Apart from these Ns selective markers, many writers have besides evaluated a figure of VOCs released via baccy fume based chiefly on GC-MS method. The usage of GC-MS, if combined with TD, was able to give the DL values in sub-ng scope for a figure of VOCs, i.e. , 0.04 to 0.11 nanograms ( aromatic VOCs ) , 0.04-0.29 nanogram ( methane seriess ) , 0.20-0.60 nanogram ( olefines ) , and 0.08 nanogram ( terpenes ) [ 19 ] . Similarly, Vainiotalo et Al. [ 21 ] were able to accomplish the DL values at somewhat higher degree, i.e. , 0.13-4.7 nanogram ( aromatics ) and 0.3 and 0.8 nanogram for 1-3 butadiene and isoprene, severally, by GC-MS coupled with TD ( Table 4 ) . On the other manus, if these DL values are compared in concentration (  µg m-3 ) , a important betterment was seen by Vainiotalo et Al. [ 21 ] . These writers obtained their DL values in 0.004-